The real final report information
Final =09REPORT FORMAT
Scientific = research involves designing a study, collecting samples, measuring variables, analyzing data, and presenting the results in a formal report. The writing process makes the author think more deeply about the study.
Accurate, c= lear, and concise writing is essential to effective communication among researchers, teachers, and students. A scientific report provides a writing experience different from a library term paper because it is based on your own data and personal involvement in the investigation.
The followi= ng general guidelines should be used:
1. Do not use first or second person.
2. Avoid long, involved sentences and overuse of polysyllabic words. Long, run-on sentences often obscure your meaning. Check for excessive use of commas and conjunctions ("and," "but," "or"= ;). These often connect clauses that can be more clearly separated into two or more sentences.
3. Use passive voice only when necesssary.
4. Avoid excessive use of nouns as adjectives. "Temperature stratification" or "tree height" is acceptable, but the trend can be over-used: "morning lake water temperature"
5. Be positive in your writing. Don't hide your findings in noncommittal statements. For example, "the data could possibly suggest" implies that the data actually may show nothing; simply say "the data show."
6. Avoid non-informative abbreviations such as "etc." and phrases such as "and so on".
7. Keep specialized jargon to a minimum. If everyday terminology is just as accurate, use it. Excessive use of Latin should be avoided. If acceptable common names exist for organisms, introduce them together with the Latin names, and then use the common name. Whenever Latin genus or species names are written, they are to be either italicized or underscored.
8. Keep technical abbreviations and acronyms to a minimum. A statement like this may be difficult for the non-expert to comprehend: "The results of the ASTM procedure for BOD were correlated with measurements of DO and JTU and compared to EPA standards." Define abbrev= iations and acronyms in the definitions section.
9. Avoid repeating facts and thoughts. Decide in which portion of the report different statements are best placed, and do not repeat them elsewhere.
10. Be concise and succinct. Avoid verbosity in writing. For example, say "many species" rather than "a large number of species," and say "because" rather than "due to the fact that." Include all that is necessary, but don't pad the report with data irrelevant to the purpose or conclusions of the study.
WRITING THE REPORT
GENERAL PRESENTATION & FORMAT
1. ALL rep= orts must be double-space typed. (graphs and tables may be single-spaced for easier reading)
2. Page nu= mbers should be at the top right hand corner of each page, beginning with the "Chapter 1" and must be preceded by the last name of the author.
4. Major sections of the report, in order
ABSTRACT (250 words maximum)
The abstra= ct should contain a brief summary of your project, including the nut= shell of your results and conclusions. Do not use the abstract to explain why you did your project!
Write the = abstract last, after all your results and analysis are finished= .. The abstract does not get a page number!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter I =96 INTRODUCTION
This is your problematic setting.
Importance= of the study
Statement = of the Problem
Subproblem= s and Hypotheses
Delimitati= ons
Definition= s of Terms
Assumption= s
Chapter II.REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE= =20Chapter III.=20 METHOD: (past tense)
Subjects =96 if applicable describe the subjects and how they were obtained.
Materials - Describe EXACTLY what you used to do your research (binoculars, scope, boat, snorkeling gear, microscope, etc.) "Eyes," "pencils" are unnecessary.
Procedures - Procedures in research reports generally should be detailed enough for the reader to have an accurate idea of what was done in the study. Give a good enough description of materials, sampling dates, locations and methods used so that a reader could duplicate your investigation. Including a simple diagram or photographs of the setup, properly labeled. The details of standard and generally known procedures (such as how an item was weighed) should be kept to a minimum. In a field study, a general description of the study site is required, complete with site maps. If commercial compu= ter software is used, cite its full name and indicate the version used. The type of statistics used to analyze your data should be included and cited.
Chapter IV. RESULTS
Subdivide = by Subproblem.
The result= s section is not just a data summarization or a collection of tables and figures; it should contain an explanation and description of the data, including any qualitative observations you made during the study. Tell the reader exactly what you found, what patterns, trends, or relationships were observed. Illustrations in the results section may consist of graphs, photographs, or diagrams that visually depict your results.=20
Chapter V. DISCUSSIONReview of Findings =96 Results should be interpreted, critically evaluated, and compared to other reports. Whereas the results section presents the "news," the discussion section contains the "editorial." In the discussion, examine the amount and possible sources of variability in your data, including experimental error. Examine your results for bias and evaluate its effect in data interpretation. Develop arguments for and against your hypotheses and interpretations. Do not make generalized statements that a= re not based on your data, known facts, or reason.
Be sure to= relate your findings to other studies and cite those studies. Draw positive conclusions from your study whenever possible. =20
Other Findings =96 include any other information you learned that you did not expect to learn or did not intentionally study.
Summary and Conclusion (present tense) - The end of your paper should contain a brief summary of your basic findings, followed by a set of clear statements that you believe explain your results. Was your hypothesis valid or invalid? =20
Poor example: (no specific inform= ation is given to the reader)
The food habits of various amphibians were studied in detail by the authors. The data were analyzed statistically and the findings were discussed at length. Certain similarities and differences were found between the species studied and the habitats in which they were found. Conclusions about feeding habits, habitat relationships, and niches were made for these species.
Good example:
The stomach contents of the red eft, red-backed salamander, and dusky salamander living in the same area were identified. An analysis of the food eaten shows that the feeding habits of the red eft and the red-backed salamander were different. These two salamanders showed "niche segregation." These two salamanders ate similar food when living in different areas but fed on different food when the two species lived in the same area. Our hypothesis was supported.
References: (the references you used and referred to in your paper)
All refer= ences used must appear in this section. All references must be cited in APA format. Include references from review of related literature.
Appendices (any additional pictures and/or material you wish to include)
A. Make s= ure any appendices are listed in the table of contents (with = page numbers).
B. Includ= e survey if applicable.
DON'T= stuff this section unnecessarily - it will not win you points...
SOME COMMON PROBLEMS
1. Use, evaluate, and interpret your data. Failure to do so is the most common problem students have in report writing. Don't calculate data, make figures and tables, then leave these data in the paper without any explanation or elaboration.
2. Do not ignore results because they differ from textbook generalizations. Your data are not incorrect just because they do not agree with some principle or a conclusion in another report.
3. Use reference material only if pertinent to your data.=20
4. Be careful about making small differences seem important. Different values are not necessarily significantly different. If you have not used statistical testing, you should at least consider in your subjective evaluation the amount of variability in your data.
5. Do not discard data because of variability and biases. There are some errors in nearly all scientific data. If recognized and accounted for in interpretation of results, errors of reasonable size need not discredit your data.
6. Round off final quantitative results to no more digits than can be reasonably justified. What sense does it make to compare two numbers such as 17.289761 and 19.82946? Do the last several digits have any special meaning? Reporting 17.3 and 19.8 may suffice in your case.
7. Label figures and tables properly and thoroughly. Too often figures and tables are inserted in a report without identifying their contents or explaining their purpose to the reader. And, clearly indicated units of measurement.
8. Number figures consecutively and tables consecutively in the sequence in which they appear in the text. Place each figure or table after, and close to, the first place it is referred to in the text.
9. Play around with your data before preparing the final figures and tables. Work over the data to seek patterns and trends. Organize the data in various ways, as different presentations may show patterns or trends. But be careful not to force a preconceived conclusion on = the data.
10. Do not select or reject data to make desired results apparent. Any &qu= ot;fudging" of data is dishonest and unacceptable; it is considered scientific misconduct.
11. Do not perform calculations on data just for the sake of calculating. Have a reason for and draw conclusions from the calculations performed. Padding your report with excessive though honest numbers = serves no useful function.
12. Document ideas, conclusions, and hypotheses with data, facts from the literature, and sound reasoning. Do not leave your ideas up in the air without support.
13. Tell the reader what you found. Graphs, drawings, and tables can enhance this discussion but cannot substitute for it.
15. Relate your results and conclusions to accepted principles and concepts. Explain any discrepancies.
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